SOCIAL JUSTICE – THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Constantinian Conformity and Social Justice
Was the “marriage of Christianity with the power structures of Roman and then Germanic Europe” [1] a great victory, or great fall, for the church? While theologians continue to debate this topic, Yoder outlines the effects of Christendom, or Constantinian conformity, [2] on the reality of church in society today. These realities significantly impact the church’s response to societal issues like injustice.
“The loss of the identity of the Christian community, as visible over against the world, replaced by the effort to ‘Christianize’ (thinly) the entire society” represents the greatest fallout of Christendom. [3] The church has been reduced to a dispensary of religious resources for individuals experiencing crisis. [4] Without a church who can relate and respond to a broken world, only individual Christians remain, trying in vain to impact and effect change. Therefore, concludes Yoder, church must recoup itself as a congregation or gathering of people, dedicated to utilizing their unique skills and gifts as the Body of Christ. By combining their abilities, the resultant effect is greater than the sum of their parts.
Constantinianism has also effected thoughts and perspectives on morality. Displacing self-sacrificial, counter-cultural Christian discipline and obedience, socially-engineered ethics have redefined right and wrong into something that must “fit” everyone. [5] The concept of “right” behavior has been demoted to behavior which would work if everyone did it; conversely, if a behavior is not possible or effective, it cannot be considered “right”. Morality’s measuring stick then has become its generalizability, a view used even by Christians. [6]
The Puritans, for example, believed moral behavior could, and should, be imposed on the general population, without realizing or admitting that non-Christians are not aided by resources such as guidance of the Holy Spirit, support of a community, renewed will and forgiveness, like Christians. Moral behavior, more than a societal imposition, should simply reflect a Christian’s faith.
Yoder states, however, that ethics should really be a study of how to behave when others do not, and Christian obedience should not be reduced to just what might be expected of everyone. After all, “a hypothetical world where it could be presupposed that everyone else would operate on the basis of Christian assumptions, where we could generalize our Christian standards, would be precisely a world in which Christian behavior would not be much needed.” [7]
Finally, Constantinianism has also effected the formulation and implementation of new, creative ideas. With the merge of church and society, basic rulings related to social and moral issues have been typically decided by socially conservative leaders. Creative, out-of-the-box thinking and ideas are naturally outside the institution, and therefore considered rebellious. “Instead of being driven by faith into ever new and higher forms of creativity, the new and creative people are obliged to think of themselves as being ‘opposed to religion’” [8]
Oikos and Polis
The church’s role in society today, particularly as it relates to global social justice, reflects the challenge of reconciling the oikos and polis. The question of whether, and to what degree, the church should become involved with social justice suggests a rather narrow perspective of the gospel of Jesus. Debate over the church becoming involved with the polis hearkens to the early days of the church, and betrays the need for our faith, rather than consumerism, to once again order and organize the spheres of our lives. [9] As the Christian community acts to counter injustice, it offers society and even the world a model to imitate. As the ekklesia, set apart from other social organizations and groups, comprised of Jews, Gentiles, masters, slaves, men and women come together as brothers and sisters in Christ to confront societal ills through the sharing of resources and subordination to God, we demonstrate Jesus as Lord above all. And in the process, with the church taking up its proper place in society, revolutions with the power to change entire civilizations, take place in secret. [10]
Polarities and Church in Society
Drawing on discussions about the 1960’s racial revolution in the United States, Yoder presents common dualisms such as law and order/revolution, love/justice, church/world and conquering hero/suffering servant as ineffective and polarizing. [11] Consideration of issues within parameters of such dualisms limits discussion, stunts growth of our understanding, and prevents appropriate responses. Typically neither extreme is correct, and finding common ground halfway between the two polarities requires too great a compromise for both sides. [12] Today’s social justice issues, must therefore, be considered holistically within society at large, rather than subverted to common dualisms.
Increasingly, an epidemic of social leprosy exists within the Body of Christ, resulting in the church not experiencing or feeling the pain of other parts of the Body. Suburbanization, segregation, geographic detachment and cultural barriers contribute to this relational and social isolation of today’s Western church. [13] Additionally, the church has failed to regain the respect it lost during the Prohibition era when church leaders, unable to convince their own congregations about the issues, attempted to legislate appropriate responses. Yoder’s conclusion that “legislative implementation is only meaningful when it extrapolates or extends a commitment on the part of the Christian community which has already demonstrated the fruitfulness of that commitment” is key to remember in this new era of social justice. [14]
SOCIAL JUSTICE – POWER PERSPECTIVES
A consideration of social justice must include a discussion about power. Misused power brings oppression and injustice. “We cannot ignore the fact that while scientific progress, technological breakthroughs and achievements in other fields of knowledge are astonishing, the rate of poverty, exploitation and social exclusion is rising at an alarming rate.” [15] In Western society, power usually resides in political offices. The Christian community must therefore become a resource and support for political leaders, ensuring that Christian values are incorporated into the office, preventing the political or civil office from becoming the sole source of moral authority. [16] However, becoming too closely involved with political leadership restricts the church’s ability to raise its prophetic voice when necessary. [17] Provincialism, the tendency to focus on your own people, often at the expense of others, tends to result from traditional uses of power. Revelation 5:9-10, however, reminds us that every tribe, tongue, people and nation will gather to worship God. We see in Colossians 3:11 no divisions exist in Christ Jesus, and Matthew 5:44 instructs us to love our enemies. Provincialism has no place within the Church of Christ. [18]
All campaigns against poverty use power. But often coercive power, which tends to tear down, rather than build up, is used. Leo Tolstoy’s main character, Anna Karenina in the novel by the same name, wrestles with the proper use of power. Speaking about a high society woman, heavily involved with philanthropic work, Anna ponders, “her whole life is devoted to charitable affairs, she is a Christian, and yet she is always angry and she always has enemies, and all enemies in the name of Christianity and charity.” [19] Power must be reconsidered. Wrongful use of power injures ourselves and injures the image of God; proper use of power embodies Jesus’ incarnational, life-giving, creational power. [20] Jesus redefines power in terms of servanthood, replacing coercion with persuasion and self-righteousness with service. Servanthood, far from a position of weakness, is an alternative mode of power. [21] As Christ followers, we are instructed, even mandated, to use God’s power to bring justice or shalom to a broken world. [22] Shalom, God’s intended harmony, is brought about through redemption of all spheres of life, which by definition, is antithetical to poverty and injustice. [23] “Power, used rightly, brings shalom.” [24]
SOCIAL JUSTICE – BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES
Is this not the fast that I have chosen: To loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, to let the oppressed go free, and that you break every yoke? [25] God’s compassion for the poor is spread throughout the pages of the Old and New Testaments. In fact, it was Israel’s mistreatment and neglect of the poor which often brought God’s chastisement and punishment. Conversely, when Israel began again to care for the poor, revival and God’s blessings resulted. Similarly, we see the early church leading efforts against poverty, not out of a sense of benevolence, but as an expression of their understanding of divine justice. [26]
Jesus acknowledged, responded to, and even identified Himself with the poor, the outcast, and the marginalized. All four gospels deal with freedom from oppression and poverty, repentance, healing, forgiveness and liberty. [27] The gospel of Jesus demands social responsibility and a response to injustice and oppression of other image-bearers of God. The message of salvation and promise is also a message of judgment against injustice and oppression and condemnation of “self-centeredness, our self-satisfaction, and our self-confidence”. [28]
How can we as a church talk about and express God’s love in the midst of so much suffering without getting involved? We have a social responsibility, a moral imperative to “pursue justice in the world, to engage in the struggle against poverty…to defend human rights and dignity.” [29] And as we do so, we testify, not to an abstract principle, but to the personhood, and power, of Jesus. “Evangelism which has nothing to do with well-being has nothing to do with the ministry of Jesus who was prepared to heal 10 young lepers and only have 1 return to worship; to prescribe eternal life for a rich young ruler and still love him when he failed the test; or to heal and feed the believing and unbelieving multitudes equally.” [30]
Involvement with social justice and the poor, beyond the scriptural imperative, comes not because we are confident in our solutions, but to proclaim the lordship of Christ. Our commitment and convictions stem not from results and effectiveness, but in our identification with the incarnation. [31] Success is not measured by how much the world has been changed, but our level of obedience and the similarity of our path to His. Jesus is our standard and “from Him we learn that brokenness, not success, is the normal path of faithfulness to the servanthood of God.” [32] Just as Jesus did, we are to identify first with the poor in their suffering, rather than our own visions of ending such suffering. [33]
Rutayisire suggests that by rediscovering the gospel of reconciliation, we can minister to the wounded, dislocated world Nouwen discusses in The Wounded Healer. [34] The healing message focuses on the four alienations present in our world today: alienation from God, self, others and nature. [35] These four alienations identify themselves in society as spiritual, psychological, social and ecological problems, and remind me of Bebbington’s four marks of evangelicals. [36]
Healthy solutions must engage the poor, particularly women, as partners, [37] increase capacities and decrease vulnerabilities by reducing their expenses, [38] leverage the strengths of the community through asset-based development. [39] Active solidarity with the poor as described in Deuteronomy 15:7-8, [40] seeking shalom in communities by giving that promotes human flourishing, [41] and holistic solutions reflect Jesus’ own ministry. After all, Jesus spiritually and physically fed the gathered 5000 people. [42] Failure to provide food for the hungry 5000 would have been unkind. But failure to connect recipients with the ultimate Provider does disservice to the gospel and equates Christians with any social, do-good organization. [43] “Our proclamation has social consequences as we call people to love and repentance in all areas of life. And our social involvement has evangelistic consequences as we bear witness to the transforming grace of Jesus Christ.” [44]
However, social justice solutions can inadvertently increase suffering without careful, studied approaches. Such examples might include superficial solutions, problems defined too narrowly, a disregard for local contexts and culture, and attempts at “playing God” which reinforce inferiority. [45] Ministries must intentionally develop an understanding of the culture, perspectives, priorities and values of the lower-class. Otherwise they tend to unsuccessfully use ministry models and programs focused on meeting middle-class needs when serving the poor. [46] Negotiating differences in lower-and middle-class culture may also challenge workers, and even perpetuate injustice. Balancing between two cultures, the ministry worker must eventually decide between successfully serving the poor by adopting their culture, and attracting/keeping funders by maintaining the dominant culture. [47] Finally, any visions and efforts to create a total Christian society must be abandoned in favor of true biblical hopes for social order. [48]
Innumerable examples of effective outreach abound today. For example, more than 100 million women currently participate in micro-finance groups, with many receiving $50-75 micro-loans to start their own businesses. [49] Programs like the Savings for Life enable poor women to save money, start businesses, send children to school, provide better nutrition for their families, visit the health clinic for medical needs, support other group members and even reach out to marginalized in their community. [50] Middle class churches are increasingly becoming involved in providing solutions through volunteers, (although support for volunteer program is greater than benefit received by target audience), financial support (without attempting to force ministries to match or adopt middle class values), tithing professional skills and providing pro bono work, and using social capital to connect poor with opportunities for jobs, grants, and donations. [51]
POVERTY AND WEALTH
Widespread global poverty is one of the major social justice issues today. However, before proposing adequate, productive solutions, we must first develop working definitions for key terms related to the issue. Generally speaking, a poverty line is a level of income below which one could not obtain sufficient food, appropriate clothing for living and working conditions, and suitable shelter. [52] However, establishing an international poverty line is impossible due to wide variations in the cost of living. Even attempts at outlining global indicators, based on elements such as currency, assets and consumption, or World Bank dollar-a-day standards, fail because they cannot take local contexts into consideration. [53] Poverty designations are relative, and must be considered in relation to wealthy populations within the same context.
According to Jayakaran, an individual is considered poor when their income is exceeded by their expenses, none of which create an asset. Conversely, a wealthy individual’s income exceeds their expenses, allowing them to accumulate reserves and surplus which could easily be converted into assets. [54] The United Nations broadly defines poverty as the “denial of choices and opportunities most basic to human development—to lead a long, healthy, creative life and enjoy a decent standard of living, freedom, self-esteem, and the respect of others.” [55]
Long-term poverty has detrimental effects on those caught in its evil snares, causing a profound sense of hopelessness, powerlessness and even shame, something which Augustine Muspole calls a “poverty of being”. [56] Over time, poverty even becomes internalized, causing people to question their value and worth, and leading to beliefs that they have been forsaken by God. And although Jesus warned the poor will always be among us, by addressing issues of injustice, we may begin effective positive change.
Bauman et al., however, suggest a biblical approach to defining poverty and wealth. Wealth, more than just economic well-being, includes creativity, spiritual and social capital and spiritual gifts. [57] Everyone, as image bearers of God, endowed with God-given potential is wealthy; simultaneously, all are poor due to our fallen, sinful nature. Bauman et al., in fact encourages us to consider the wealth of the “materially poor” demonstrated in strength, perseverance, ingenuity, faith and joy. Similarly, the poverty of the rich can appear as apathy, decadence and desire to escape meaningless existences. Looking back to God’s call of Abram in Genesis 12, material wealth might best be considered as something with which to bless all the nations of the world. [58] Wealth’s insidious power was also spoken against by Jesus when he cautioned us of serving two masters. [59] All of us, concludes the authors, are poor and wealthy. [60]
Essentially, concludes Bauman et al., poverty is about broken relationships with God, each other, our community and the environment. [61] The key, therefore, for defeating poverty, is to focus on healing broken relationships, fulfilling Jesus’ command to love God and love others. [62] Solutions which fail to do so, may in fact have little to no effect, or even create additional problems. For example, NGOs may target the “poorest of the poor”, without acknowledging or addressing the fact that many are indeed poor as a result of oppressive and detrimental practices of and relationships with the wealthy. [63]
While few would disagree about the great disparity between the wealthy and poor in society today, very little consensus exists about the role the wealthy plays in the causes and potential solutions of poverty. The disparity, according to Daniel, is a gap that must be bridged. [64] Villacorta and Segura state, “the accumulation of wealth leads to dominance, unhealthy patterns of consumption and ultimately poor stewardship of the resources God has entrusted to us.” [65] However, Jayakaran suggests our views of the wealthy as dishonest, lazy or uncaring are perhaps not only incorrect, but lead to key partners in ministry being overlooked. By transforming the rich, large amounts of resources may be freed up for the poor. [66] Conversely, ministries that ignore the wealthy fail to solve problems, create hostility between the poor and rich, and can actually deteriorate situations after the ministry leaves. [67] Aquinas’ perspective on properly using resources for the sake of the needy may also be helpful. [68] Regardless of one’s conclusions about the wealthy, relationships between the wealthy and poor clearly need honest assessment and healing. [69]
CONSUMERISM AND STEWARDSHIP
The role of consumerism and its negative effects on combating social justice must be considered. Too often in today’s consumeristic society, we fall prey to thinking we have accomplished or done something, when in fact we have only consumed an experience. Attendees at the ONE Campaign against Poverty concert, for example, felt like they had done something to eradicate world poverty because they had purchased a concert ticket. The resultant effect for many is they actually end up doing less than they would have without the commodified experience. We get stuck consuming mission instead of actually doing mission. [70] Villacorta and Segura boldly state, “as we raise our prophetic voice, we must speak about the thoughtlessness of antichristian consumerism. We must also deepen the dialogue about our relationship to God’s creation and explore together the impact of heedless consumerism on our spiritual sensitivity and thus our relationship to the Creator.” [71]
In some regards, stewardship stands in opposition to consumerism. Stewardship, the proper management of God’s resources, develops in us character, commitment, compassion, calling, commission, conformity to God’s will and the opportunity to glorify God. [72] It is, along with generosity, two of the Christian’s most profound privileges. [73] Stewardship also reflects the Christian’s ability to close down other options, and to say no to ourselves for the express benefit of others. [74] With proper perspective on consumerism and stewardship, we become counter-cultural “put[ting] up a bulwark of moral resistance to the cultural ego-centricity which sits at the center of a secular humanism.” [75]
REFLECTIONS
This week’s readings provided an interesting mix of ecclesiological and pragmatic approaches to social justice. Considering the broad range of topics, this synopsis feels more like the final project itself, rather than just a weekly assignment.
I found Yoder’s discussion about Constantinianism and its widespread effects on the social workings of society to be fascinating. I am particularly struck by the concept of individuals, outside the leadership structures of established institutions, who develop creative, innovative ideas being viewed as rebels who are opposed to religion. While outside the realm of my project, it would be interesting to pursue this idea to determine its merits in regards to the unchurched population. I am also curious to compare this idea to discussions about counter-cultural behaviors in Heath and Potter’s book, Nation of Rebels.
I continue to be haunted by the questions posed by Villacorta and Segura: “Why [is] it that church growth does not diminish injustice? Why are Christian ethics not transforming our societies?” [76] In Jeremiah 22:16 the Lord declares, “He defended the cause of the poor and needy, and so all went well. Is that not what it means to know me?” Daniel succinctly states that knowing the Lord means defending the poor. [77] How can this effectively be done in church today? In today’s incredibly interconnected global village that is shrinking daily, “decadence and destitution have never been so acquainted.” [78] Poverty awareness is found in commercials, on bottled water, in magazines, and with campaigns for products. Additionally, compassion seems to have become mainstream, resulting in unprecedented concern and contributions. [79] Yet much more must be done. Will consumers eventually tire of the disturbing images and pleas for support? How many contributions represent changed hearts? And how can the church better lead the way to begin changing hearts?
END NOTES
[1] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 103.
[2] Ibid., 183.
[3] Ibid., 104.
[4] Ibid., 106.
[5] Ibid., 104.
[6] Ibid., 105.
[7] Ibid., 112-113.
[8] Ibid., 106.
[9] J. Clark. Reconciling Oikos and Polis (Portland: Face to Face Lecture, October 2010).
[10] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 118.
[11] Ibid., 99.
[12] Ibid., 103.
[13] A. Sears. Reconciliation across Social Class. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 7-8.
[14] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 188.
[15] C. Villacorta and H. Segura. Poverty and Wealth. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[16] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 186.
[17] A. Rutayisire. Rediscovering the Gospel of Reconciliation. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 3.
[18] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 192.
[19] G. Okesson. Loving the Poor without Hating the Wealthy. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[20] Ibid., 2.
[21] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 191.
[22] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 4.
[23] Ibid., 2.
[24] Ibid., 4.
[25] Isaiah 58:6.
[26] J. Edwards. Promise and the Gospel of Well-being. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[27] Ibid., 3.
[28] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 120.
[29] C. Villacorta and H. Segura. Poverty and Wealth. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[30] J. Edwards. Promise and the Gospel of Well-being. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 3.
[31] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 110, 195.
[32] Ibid., 109-110.
[33] Ibid., 111.
[34] A. Rutayisire. Rediscovering the Gospel of Reconciliation. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[35] Ibid., 3.
[36] J. Clark. Evangelicalism (Portland: Face to Face Lecture, October 2010).
[37] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[38] R. Jayakaran. Addressing Poverty with Participatory Learning. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 4.
[39] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 5.
[40] C. Villacorta and H. Segura. Poverty and Wealth. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 6.
[41] J. Borger. Where Should We Give? (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[42] A. Sears. Reconciliation across Social Class. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 6.
[43] J. Dettoni. A Cup of Cold Water…Is it enough? Good, Better, Best! (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[44] J. Edwards. Promise and the Gospel of Well-being. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[45] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 5.
[46] A. Sears. Reconciliation across Social Class. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 6.
[47] Ibid., 8.
[48] J. Yoder. For the Nations: Essays Public & Evangelical (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 107.
[49] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[50] Ibid., 6.
[51] A. Sears. Reconciliation across Social Class. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 12.
[52] What Is Poverty? – Poverty Lines And The Dollar-a-day Standard. (http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/2655/What-Poverty-POVERTY-LINES-DOLLAR-DAY-STANDARD.html#ixzz14kyHpuZ8).
[53] R. Jayakaran. Addressing Poverty with Participatory Learning. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[54] Ibid., 1.
[55] What is Poverty? – Defining and Measuring Poverty Internationally. (http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/2654/What-Poverty-DEFINING-MEASURING-POVERTY-INTERNATIONALLY.html#ixzz14l2B8Z73)
[56] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 4.
[57] Ibid., 1.
[58] Genesis 12:1-3.
[59] Matthew 6:24.
[60] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[61] Ibid., 3.
[62] Luke 10:27.
[63] R. Jayakaran. Addressing Poverty with Participatory Learning. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[64] S. Daniel. Bridging the Gap. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[65] C. Villacorta and H. Segura. Poverty and Wealth. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 3.
[66] R. Jayakaran. Addressing Poverty with Participatory Learning. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[67] Ibid., 1.
[68] W. Cavanaugh. Being Consumed: Economics and Christian Desire (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 52.
[69] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 2.
[70] J. Clark. Church Contexts: Consumerism & Church (Portland: Face to Face Lecture, October 2010).
[71] C. Villacorta and H. Segura. Poverty and Wealth. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 4.
[72] The Resource Mobilisation Working Group. Kingdom Stewardship: Equipping Disciples, Mobilizing Resources and Utilizing Technology to Advance God’s Mission in the World. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 4-5.
[73] Ibid., 4.
[74] J. Clark. Church Contexts: Consumerism & Church (Portland: Face to Face Lecture, October 2010).
[75] J. Edwards. Promise and the Gospel of Well-being. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 4.
[76] C. Villacorta and H. Segura. Poverty and Wealth. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 4.
[77] S. Daniel. Bridging the Gap. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 3.
[78] S. Bauman, W. Wellman and M. Laughlin. The Wealth of the Poor: Women and the Savings Movement in Africa. (The Lausanne Global Conversation, http://conversation.lausanne.org), 1.
[79] Ibid., 2.
